Unit 12: Section D – Meaning in connected discourse
Linking signals
Whether in speech or in writing, one help people to understand his/her message by signaling how one idea leads on from another. The words and phrases, which have this connecting function, are like 'signposts' on a journey. Most of them in English are sentences adverbials, and they generally come at the beginning of a sentence.
Making a new start or a transition
Well and now
A: You remember that puppy we found?
B: Yes.
A: Wěll, we adopted it, and now it has some puppies of its own.
Here, well means 'I am going to tell you something new'.
Changing the subject: Incidentally or by the way
I Think I've a bit absent-minded over that letter. Incidentally / by the way, this fax machine doesn't seem to be working properly.
Listing and adding
In <writing> and <formal speech>
One can list a series of points by such adverbs as 'firstly' (or first), second(ly), next, last(ly) (or finally)
Phrases such as to begin with, 'in the second place' and 'to conclude' can be used
Similar to those adverbials are 'also', 'moreover', 'furthermore', 'what is more'.
In spoken debate or discussion 'and another thing', and 'I might add' are used.
Reinforcement
'Besides' 'in any case', in 'fact' and 'anyway' show additional point in an argument.
Ray won't have any proof of my guilt. Besides he doesn't suspect me of having any connection with the recent robberies.
Summary and generalization
To lead into a brief summary of point already, one can write 'in a word', 'in short' or to 'sum up'.
The foundation could be custodian of a central fund of charities. It could plan and finance a stock of books, tapes and films. In a word, it could do plenty.
Explanation
A point already made can be explained in three ways:
By expanding and clarifying its meaning: that is, that is to say, i.e.
It is important that young children should see thing, and not merely read about them. That is, the best education is thought direct experience and discovery.
By giving a more precise description: namely, viz
A good example in a plant, namely wormwood.
By giving an illustration: for example, for instance, e.g.
Role playing can be done for quite a different purpose. For example, a sales presentation can be evaluated through role-playing.
Reformulation
Sometimes, to make our ideas clearer, we explain or modify them by putting them in other words. Such reformulation can be introduced by adverbials like 'in other words', 'rather', 'better'.
Be natural. In other words, be yourself.
Linking clauses and sentences
Grammar provides three main ways of putting clauses together
Coordination: Conjunction - and, or, but, both, else, not only, but also, either etc.
Subordination: When, if, because, unless, as well as, otherwise
Adverbial links: moreover, and meanwhile, otherwise, what's more, alternatively.
Contrast:
Coordination: but, however (The conservation went on but Rebecca stopped listening.)
The conversation went on but Rebecca stopped listening.
Subordination: although, though, still
Although Quebec did not break its ties with the rest of Canada it did not feel itself part of the confederation.
Adverbials: however, nevertheless
In theory, most companies would like to double their profits in a year. However, few could really handle it, and most companies wouldn't even try.
For a stronger and more emphatic link, occasionally we find a combination of a sentence adverbial with coordination or subordination.
He was extremely tiered, but he was nevertheless unable to sleep until after midnight. (coordination + adverbial)
Although he was suffering from fatigue as result of the long journey, yet because of the noise, he lay awake in his bed, thinking over the event of the day until the early hours of the morning. (Subordination + adverbial)
Other meaning links
Time-When
Coordination: and (then) (Penelope stopped the car and rolled down the window.)
Subordination: after (After chatting to Davidson for a few minutes longer he went back to his office.
Adverbials: then (She studied the letter for a long time. Then she turned back to Wilson and smiled.
Cause, reason, result
Coordination: therefore (She ran out of money, therefore had to look for job.)
Subordination: So (that) (Since a customer had arrived in the shop, Samantha said no more. The prisoners had a secret radio, so that they could receive message from the outside world.)
Adverbials: therefore (When children reached the age of 11 or 12, they start growing fast. They therefore need more protein.)
Positive Condition
Coordination: Take this medicine, then you'll feel better.
Subordination: If you take this medicine, you'll feel better.
Adverbial: You ought to take your medicine regularly, as doctor ordered. You feel better then.
Negative Condition
Coordination: You'd better put your overcoat on or (else) you'll catch a cold.
Subordinate: Unless you put your overcoat, you'll catch a cold.
Adverbials: I should wear an overcoat if I were you; otherwise, you'll catch a cold.
Condition + Contrast
Subordination: However, much advice we give him, he (still) does exactly what he wants.
Adverbials: It doesn't matter how much advice we give him: he still does exactly what he wants.
(Coordination alone cannot indicate condition + contrast.)
Addition
Coordination: She's (both) a professional artist and a first-rate teacher. She's not only a professional artist, but (also) a first-rate teacher.
Subordination: As well as (being) a professional artist (also), a first-rate teacher.
Adverbials: She's well known all over the country as professional artist. What's more, She's a first-rate teacher.
Alternatives
Coordinator: We can (either) meet this afternoon, or (else) we can discuss the matter at dinner.
Adverbials: Would you like us to have a meeting about the matter this afternoon? Otherwise, we could discuss it at dinner.
(Alternatives cannot be expressed by subordination.)
General purpose links
(a) Relative Clauses
(b) Participle and verbless clauses
(c) Grammatically unlinked clauses
(a) Relative Clauses
We have arrived at the hotel and find it very comfortable.
We have arrived at the hotel, which we find very comfortable.
He's spending too much time on sport, and that's not good for his school work.
He's spending too much time on sport, which is not good for his school work.
Restrictive Clause
Reason
I don't like people who drives fast cars.
(Because they drive fast cars, I don't like them)
Time-when
The man I saw was wearing a hat.
(When I saw him, he was wearing a hat)
Condition
Anyone who bets on horses deserves to lose money.
(if anyone bets on horses, he or she deserves to lose money.)
(b) Participle and verbless clauses
Reason
Being an only child, she had never seen a baby without its outer wrapping.
(As she was an only child...)
Time-when
Cleared, the site will be very valuable.
(when it is cleared...)
Condition
Cleared, the site will be very valuable.
(If it is cleared...)
Means
Using a sharp axe, they broke down the floor.
(By using a sharp axe...)
Reason
She stared silently at the floor, too nervous to reply.
(... because she was too nervous...)
Unlinked clauses
Two neighbouring clauses may be grammatically unlinked. For example, they may be separated in writing by a period (...) or semi colon (;) a colon (:) or a dash (-).
He loaded the pistol carefully; he took aim... a shot rang out.
She had to look for a job - she had run out of money.
Take this medicine: it'll make you feel better.
Cross reference and omission
Cross reference - (using pronoun for noun phrase)
My brother was wearing a raincoat. So, my brother didn't get wet.
Omission
My brother was wearing a raincoat so (he) didn't get wet.
Cross reference to noun phrase
3rd person pronouns: he, she, they, etc.
Henrietta looked down at her left hand. It was covered with blood.
I know Red and Handley well. They are both painters.
He hurt himself. She hurt herself. They hurt themselves.
The house which was destroyed...
1st and 2nd person pronouns
You and I should get together sometime and share our ideas.
My wife and I are going to Argentina. We hope to stay with some friends.
You and john can stop work now. You can both eat your lunch in the kitchen. (agreement you as plural)
Special cases
Quantifiers: everybody, somebody, no one and anyone
Everybody looked after themselves.
One of the most important things anyone can do in business is consider his or her future connections.
Group nouns
It is a family which traces its history from the Norman Conquest.
They are family who quarrel among themselves.
Quantifier pronouns as substitute for noun phrase: one, some, each, none, few
Would you like a cup of tea?
No, thanks - I've just had one. (Singular count noun)
Can you give me a few stamps? (Plural count noun)
I need some for these postcards.
Some of the equipments has been damaged but none has been lost. (mass noun)
Substitutes for nouns and parts of noun phrases
Have you seen any knives? I need a sharp one.
(plural of one is ones)
Which wife would you like? The red or the white?
This house is bigger than my last. (omission)
He hole was about as big as that made by rocket. (that for one)
The plumage of male pheasant is more colorful than that of female. (that for mass noun)
Substitutes for structures containing verbs do
She does not work any harder than Burt does.
She does not work hard as Burt.
Omission following an operator
I'll open a bank account if you will.
The main verb do: do it, do that, do so
If we want to preserve our power, This is the way to do it.
So after a verb, and omission after a verb
The government won't provide the money - I have heard the minister say so.
Substitute for wh-clause
Someone has hidden my notebook but I don't know who.
Substitute for to-infinitive clause
Why don't you come and stay with us?
I'd love to.
It, that, this as clause substitute
If you make a sound you'll regret it.
She is having a baby. How did you know that?
Omission through coordination
George Best travelled fearing the worst, but was pleasantly surprised.
(but he was pleasantly surprised)
Omission in non-finite clause
I hope to get in touch you soon.
(I hope that I will get in touch with you soon.)
Coming home late one evening, I heard something which made my blood freeze in horror.
(When I was coming home...)
Omission of verbless clause
Whether right or wrong, he usually wins the argument.
(whether is wright or wrong...)
Presenting and focusing information
For a massage to be properly understood:
1. The message has to be cut up individual pieces of information;
2. The ideas have to be given the right emphasis;
3. The ideas have to be given in the right order.
Pieces of information
In <written> English a, piece of information can be defined as piece of language which is separated from what goes before and from what follows by punctuation marks. (.,;:-?!), and which does not itself contain any punctuation marks. In Spoken English, a piece of information can be defined a tone unit, i.e. a unit of intonation containing a nucleus.
Dividing the message into tone units
There is no exact match between punctuation in <writing> and tone units in <speech> is more variable in its structure of information than writing. Cutting up speech into tone units depends on:
a. The speech at which you are speaking,
b. What emphasis you want to give to part of message,
c. The length of grammatical units.
For guidance, the following general rules are used in knowing when to start a new tone unit:
If a sentence begins with a clause or adverbial phrase give the clause or adverbial element a separate tone unit:
| Last yéar | the IT bubble bùrst. |
If a sentence contains a non-restrictive modifiers (pointer words: this, that) such as a non-restrictive relative clause (wh-pronoun), give the modifier a separate tone unit:
| The emergency service were hampered by thick smòke | which spread quǐckly | through the stàtion. |
Similarly, give any medial phrase or clause a separate tome unit:
| The gòvernment, | In Mr. Hǒwell's view, | must ensúre | that we have enough ènergy. |
A vocative or linking adverb usually has its own tone unit (or at least end a tone unit):
| Mǎry, | are you cóming? |
| The polìce, | howéver, | thought she was gùilty. |
Give a separate tone unit to a clause or long noun phrase acting as a subject:
| What we néed | is plenty of tìme. |
If two or more clause are coordinated, give them each separate tone unit:
| I opened the dóor | and walked straight ìn. |
Give a separate tone unit to each separate piece of information, even if none of the above conditions apply:
| The college emplóys | a number stáff | without qualified tèacher status. |
End-focus and contrastive focus
Sometimes speaker shift the nucleus to other part of tone unit, which is contrast to the normal or understood context. Placing such focus is contrastive focus.
| It must have last Mònday. | |Nò| | It's nèxt Monday. |
| She was speaking to mè. | (not to other)
| I know he works in an òffice. | but who does he work fòr? |
| Have you sèen Peter? | But, ìf you see him | Please gìve him my good wishes. |
Given and new information
Information in message can be divided into:
Given information (Speaker assumes the hearer knows about it already)
New information (something which the speaker does not assume the hearer knows about)
| Do you like Picásso? |
| No, I hàte modern painting |
Here given that Picasso is a modern painter.
Main and subsidiary information
One gives falling tone to main information and rising tone to subsidiary information.
| I saw your bròther | at the game yésterday. | (adverbials)
Main Subsidiary
| Yès | watching fǒotball | is his favourite pàstime.|
subsidiary main
End-focus and End-weight
· In writing, one cannot point important information by using intonation and he/she has to rely on ordering and subordination of clauses.
· The general rule is to put important new information at the end and this is end focus principle.
Arguments in favour of a new bǔilding plan, said the máyor, included suggéstions that of a new shopping centre were not búilt, the city's tràffic próblem would soon become unmànageable.
· End-focus: The new or most important idea or message in a piece of information should be placed towards the end, where in speech the nucleus of the tone unit normally falls.
· End-weight: The more weighty part(s) of a sentence should be placed towards at the end.
· Contrastive focus: Sometimes nucleus of a tone unit is shifted to the front or earlier position.
End-focus, End-weight
My home was that wasteland of derelict building behind the morgue.
Contrastive focus
The wasteland of derelict building behind the morgue was my home.
Order and emphasis
Topic
· First position in a sentence is the second most important, because it is usually the part of the sentence which is familiar territory.
· From familiar territory one begins the sentence as a mental 'journey into the unknown'.
· The first element in a clause (leaving aside conjunction and many adverbials) is the topic.
· In most statement, the topic is the subject of the sentence. If the statement has only one tone unit, usually the topic does not receive focus, because it often contains old (given) information and links in the statement in meaning to what was said before.
(Have you seen Bill?) He owes me five dollars.
(Have you seen Bill?) (Information already provided) He (topic) owes me five dollars. (Information focus)
Fronted Topic
· Instead of the subject, one can make another element the topic by moving it to the front of the clause or sentence.
· The shift, called fronting, gives that element a kind of psychological prominence with these three effects:
(a) Emphatic topic
(b) Contrastive topic
(c) Semi-given topic
Emphatic Topic
Here speaker fronts an element (a complement) and gives nuclear stress.
| Very strànge | his eyes lóoked. | (His eyes looked very strange.)
| An utter fòol I felt I tòo | (I, too, felt an utter full.)
| Relaxàtion you call it. | (You call it relaxation)
|Excellent fòod they serve here. | (They serve here excellent food.)
Contrastive Topic
Here the fronting helps to point dramatically to a contrast between two things mentioned in the neighbouring sentences or clauses, which often have parallel structure.
| Sòme things | we'll tèll you. | (We'll tell you some things.) (object)
| But sǒme | you'll have to find out about yoursèlf. | (You'll have to find out about yourself, but some.) (complement)
| Blòggs | my name is | (My name is Bloggs.) (complement)
| So Blòggs | you might as well càll me | (So, you might as well call me Bloggs.) (complement)
| Wǐllingly | he will nèver do it. | (He will never do it willingly.) (adverbial)
|Rǐch | I mày be | (I may be rich.) (complement)
Semi-given topic
A computer could solve easily most of these problems.
Most of these problems a computer could solve easily. (Object)
For corporate thinking a thousand delegates are too many.
A thousand delegates are too many for corporate thinking. (subject/complement)
The administrative has attended to already everything that can be done.
Everything that can be done the administrative has attended to already. (prepositional object)
Inversion
Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs are helping verbs. They are a small class of words including primary auxiliaries like be and modal auxiliaries like can and will. Auxiliaries do not make up a verb phrase on their own but help to make up a verb phrase in combination with a main verb.
The auxiliary verbs do:
|
|
Positive |
Uncontractec Negative |
Contracted negative |
|
Present 3rd person singular |
does |
does not |
doesn't |
|
present not 3rd person singular |
do |
do not |
don't |
|
past |
did |
did not |
didn't |
The auxiliary verbs have
|
|
Positive |
|
Negative |
|
|
|
Uncontracted |
Contracted |
Uncontracted |
Contracted |
|
base |
have |
've |
have not, 've not |
haven't |
|
s form |
has |
's |
has not, 's not |
hasn't |
|
past |
had |
'd |
had not, 'd not |
hadn't |
|
-ing form |
having |
|
|
|
|
-ed participle |
had |
|
|
|
Modal Auxiliaries:
The modal auxiliaries do not have -s forms, -ing forms, or -ed participles. Can may, shall, will have special past form could, might, should, would. The other modal auxiliaries (must, dare, ought to, used to) do not have such forms.
|
Positive |
Uncontracted negative |
Contracted Negative |
|
can |
cannot, can not |
can't |
|
could |
could not |
couldn't |
|
may |
may not |
mayn't (rare) |
|
might |
might not |
mightn't |
|
shall |
shall not |
shan't (rare) <AmE) |
|
should |
should not |
shouldn't |
|
will, 'll |
will not 'll not |
won't |
|
would 'd |
would not, 'd not |
wouldn't |
|
must |
must not |
mustn't |
|
ought to |
ought not to |
oughtn't to |
|
use to |
used not to |
didn't use to, usedn't to |
|
need |
need not |
needn't |
|
dare |
dare not |
daren't |
Fronting is often accompanied by inversion, that is not only topic element but the verb phrase, part of it, so moved before the subject.
Subject-verb inversion
Subject Verb Verb Subject
The rain came down in torrents. Down came the rain in torrents.
Subject-operator inversion
Subject Operator Operator Subject
I have never seen him so angry. Never have I seen him so angry
Subject Operator Operator Subject
I never saw him so angry Never did I see him so angry.
Subject verb inversion is normally limited as follows:
· The verb phrase consist of single verb word in the past or present tense.
· The verb is an intransitive verb of position (be, stand, lie) or verb of motion (come, go, fall, etc.)
· The topic element is an adverbial of place or direction. (Down, here, to the right, away)
A pen is here, Bendra.
Here is a pen, Bendra.
Mckenzie comes here.
Here comes Mckenzie.
Your friends are there, look.
Look, there are your friends.
The castle stood in its mediaeval splendour at the summit there.
There, at the summit, stood the castle in its mediaeval splendour.
Pillars lie to the right of the hall entrance.
To the right of hall entrance pillars lie.
The car went away like a whirlwind
Away went the car like a whirlwind
The gigantic aircraft rolled out of the hanger slowly.
Slowly out of its hanger rolled out the gigantic aircraft.
It is here.
Here it is.
They go away.
Away they go.
Your friends are there.
There are your friends.
There are too many people.
Too many people are there.
Subject operator inversion
In most questions, subject and operator are obligatory.
Can you swim?
He did not say a word.
Not a word he said. Not a word did he say.
The door should not be left unlocked under no circumstances.
Under no circumstances should the door be left unlocked.
Inversion is obligatory after the fronting of the negative meaning such as never, hardly, scarcely, few, little, seldom, rarely, nor, (not) only
I had hardly left before the trouble started.
Hardly had I left before the trouble started.
He little realised how much suffering he had caused.
Little did he realized how much suffering he has caused.
Little he realised how much suffering he has caused.
French Admiral, Jean de Vienne was opposing him.
Opposing him was French Admiral Jean de Vienne.
All manner of chests and trunks were neatly ranged against the rock walls.
Neatly Ranged against the Rock wall were all manner of chest and trunks.
Fronting with so
So as substitute from with subject-operator inversion.
I have seen the play. So have I.
I have enjoyed the play. So did my friend.
So as substitute from without inversion
You've spilled coffee on your dress. So I have.
It's raining hard outside. So it is.
So introducing a clause of degree or amount
He played so well that he was named man of the match.
He did play so well that he was named man of the match.
So well did he played that he was named man of the match.
Other construction affecting the topic
Cleft Sentence (it-type)
The cleft sentence construction with introductory it is useful for fronting an element as topic and also for putting focus (usually for contrast) on the topic element. It does this by splitting the sentence into two halves, highlighting the topic by making it the complement of it+be:
I want to read the other book
It's the other book that I want to read.
Industrial power in the north of England brought new prosperity to the country.
It was in the north of England that industrial power brought new prosperity to the country.
Not low pay we object to but extra responsibility.
It's not low pay we object to, its extra responsibility.
Cleft Sentence (wh-type)
A nominal relative clause lit an it-cleft sentence can be used to highlight one element for contrast. It can be either subject or complement of the verb (the subject position is more common):
We need more time
It's more time that we need. (it-type)
What we need is more time. (wh-type)
More time is what we need. (wh-type)
Our neighbour bought a new car last year.
It was our neighbour who bought a new car last year. (it-type)
It was new car that our neighbour bought last year. (it-type)
It was last year that our neighbour bought a new car. (it-type)
What our neighbour bought last year was a new car. (wh-type)
Comparison between it-type and wh-type cleft sentences
|
It type |
Wh-type |
|
Adverbial phrase or prepositional phrase - It was only recently that I noticed the leaked in the roof. - It was in 1896 that he went to Europe on his first mission - It was on this very sport that I first met my wife. |
Noun phrase and nominal clause
|
|
- It was on this very sport that I first met my wife. - It is the autumn that the countryside is most beautiful. - It was at Culloden that the rebellion was finally defeated. -It was the ambassador that met us. |
- Where I first met my wife is this very spot. - When the countryside is most beautiful is Autumn. - Where the rebellion was finally defeated is Culloden. -The person who met us was the ambassador. |
|
|
What she is is a brilliant reporter. What he's done is spoil the whole thing. What he'll do is spoil whole thing. What he's done is spoil the whole thing. What he's done is to spoil the whole thing. What he's done is spoilt the whole thing. What he's doing is spoiling the whole thing. |
|
|
This is where I first met my wife. This is how you start the engine. (Are you trying to wreck my career?) Because that's what you're doing. (I had difficulty starting the car today.) That is what always happens when I leave it out in cold. |
Postponement
Introductory -it construction
The introductory -it construction is a means of postponing a subject clause to a later position in a sentence either for end weight or end focus.
That income tax will be reduced is unlikely.
It is unlikely that income tax will be reduced.
Keeping that-clause in front position is exceptional and suggest:
a. that clause is somehow given information,
b. one wants to put special contrastive emphasis on the rest of the main clause.
(Fear in human produces a smell is said to provoke animal to attack.)
It is said that fear in human being produces a smell that provokes animal to attack.
(Their holding referendum is unlikely.)
It is unlikely that they hold a referendum.
Postponing an object clause
You must find working here enjoyable.
You must find it enjoyable working here.
(It is enjoyable working here. (it-type cleft))
I owe it to you that the jury acquitted me.
It is thank to you that the jury acquitted me.
Something put it into his head that she was a spy.
It came into his head that she was a spy.
I leave it to you to lock the door.
Postponing parts of sentence element
How ready are they to make peace with their enemies?
How ready to make peace with their enemies are they?
Postponing the modifier following the noun
Tome to leave our homes for ever had arrived.
The time had arrived to leave our homes for ever.
The problem of what to do with the money arose.
The problem arose of what to do with the money.
We heard the story from her own lips of how she was stranded for days without food.
We heard the story of how she was stranded for days without food from her own lips.
Postponing the emphatic reflexive pronoun: myself, himself, themself
The president himself gave the order.
The president gave the order himself.
Postponing comparative clauses
(These days than used to years ago more people own houses.)
More people own houses these days than used to years ago.
(He than any other tyrant in history showed less pity to his victims.)
He showed less pity to his victims than any other tyrant in history.
(All of them except the gang leader himself were arrested.)
All of them were arrested except the gang leader himself.
(I've had enough trouble to last me a life time from these children.)
I've had enough trouble from these children to last me a life time.
(I was so excited that I forgot to thank you by the present.)
I was so excited by the present that I forgot to thank you.
Other choice of position
The passive
My uncle bought the chairs.
The chairs were bought by my uncle.
(That so much had changed so quickly surprised me.)
I was surprised that so much had changed so quickly.
Position of direct object
He gave all his books awày.
He gave away all his books.
She made the story ùp.
She made up the stòry.
Position of indirect object
The twin told their mother all their sècrets.
The twin told all their secrets to their mòther.
Avoiding intransitive verb
Connecting with the principle of end-weight in English is the feeling that the predicate of a clause should be longer or grammatically more complex.
She's swimming. She's having a swim.
He's bathing. He's taking a bath.
They rested. They took a rest.
The driver shouted. The driver gave a shout.
She works little. She does little work.
I kicked the door. I gave the door a kick.
I visited her. I paid her a visit.
Change the following into cleft sentences.
1. We need more time.
What we need is more time. It is more time that we need.
2. I want to read the other book.
The other book is what I want to read. It is the other book that I want to read.
3. I hate onions.
The onion is what I hate. It is the onion that I hate.
4. He wants to study law.
Law is what he wants to study. It is law that he wants to study.
5. Martin ate your pizza.
Your pizza is what Martin ate. It was your pizza what Martin ate.
Rewrite the following into subject-operator inversion
1 I never saw such an awful creature.
Never did I see such an awful creature.
2 He didn't say a word.
Not a word did he say.
3 A young boy stood behind the table.
Did the young boy stand behind the table.
4 Mark is not only single, but he is also rich.
Not only single is Mark, but also rich he is.
Rewrite the following into subject-operator inversion
1. He didn't say a word.
Not a word did he say.
2. I never saw such a beautiful flower.
Never did I see such a beautiful flower.
3. A young lady hide behind the table.
Did a young lady hide behind the table.
4. They couldn't find a bottle opener anywhere.
Anywhere couldn't they find a bottle opener.
5. You shouldn't go under any circumstances.
Shouldn't you go under any circumstances.
Rewrite the following expression into subject-operator inversion
1. She had scarcely sat down when the phone rang.
Had she scarcely sat down then the phone rang.
2. They will only know it after the test.
After the test will they only know it.
3. We didn't notice the broken glass until the later.
Until the later didn't we notice the broken glass
4. We can find a special kind of rhododendron only in Nepal
Can we find a special kind of rhododendron only in Nepal.
5. We should not go out under any circumstances.
Should we not go out under any circumstances.
