Denial and affirmation
Negative sentences
When speakers want to deny the truth of something, they use a negative sentence containing one of the negative items not (or n't), no, nothing, nowhere. The part of a sentence of clause which follows the negative word is called the scope of negation.
He definitely hasn't taken the job. (It's definite that he hasn't)
He hasn't definitely taken the job. (It's not definite that he has)
Crime necessarily doesn't pay. (crime never pays)
Crime doesn't necessarily pay. (It does not always pay)
Inside the Scope of negation, any words like any, yet, ever are used:
I didn't attend any of the lectures. (I attended none of the lectures)
We haven't had dinner yet.
But we can also use some-word like some, already, sometimes after the negative word and these words lie outside the scope of negation.
I didn't attend some of the lectures. (There were some lectures that I didn't attend).
Occasionally a negative word does not have scope in a clause or sentence at all. Instead, it applies its meaning only to a phrase or part of a phrase in the sentence:
No food at all is better than unwholesome food. (Eating nothing at all is better than)
We not infrequently go abroad (we quite often go abroad)
They stayed at a not very attractive hotel. (at a rather unattractive hotel)
Affirmation
To place emphasis on the positive meaning of a sentence, we put intonation nucleus on the operator. This is done especially for contrast, when someone has suggested or assumed the negative.
So you two haven't met before? Well, We hà ve mèt - but it was à ges ago.
What a pity Mary isn't here! (But) she ìs here.
If the response is not straightforward denial, but contains new positive information the new information is stressed by a fall-rise tone.
Surely they wouldn't have stolen it. Nò, but they còuld have taken it by mistǎke.
Denial
To deny what someone has suggested or supposed you can again place the nucleus the operator, but this time on a negative
So you hà ven't lost your keys!
When did he pass his exà m? Well actually, he dìdn't pass it.
Short affirmation
There is a shortened type of affirmation in which everything in a clause is omitted after the operator. This is usual when you are simply affirming a question or statement and do not need to repeat what has already been said.
This book is interesting. Yes, it ìs.
I assume I will be invited to the meeting. Yes, you wìll.
Can you speak German? Yes, I cà n.
Have I missed the bus? Yes, you hà ve.
To agree with negative statement, use negative operator.
Your mother doesn't look well. No, she dòesn't.
Short Denial
Shortened statements (in the negative) are also used to deny a statement.
You worry too much. No, I dòn't.
I'll probably fail my driving test No, you wòn't.
Can you speak German? No, I cà n't.
Did she fail the test? No she did nòt. (Emphasis)
I understand most people didn't agree with me. Yes, they dÃd. (denying the negative statement)
Denial Combined with affirmation: not...but
He didn't look at captain Mosira, but stared at the ceiling.
The land doesn't belong to me, but to the government.
The land belongs not to me, but to the government.
The land belongs to the government, not to me.
I dòn't like mathemǎtics, but dò enjoy biòlogy.
Agreement and disagreement
Agreement
It is all the more necessary to be polite when the other person's judgment or opinion is in question. In agreeing with an unfavourable opinion, you may wish to qualify your agreement with an expression of regret.
His speech was so boring.
Yes, I'm afraid it wà s.
Yes, I have to agree with you it wà s.
I have to admit I found it só.
In other cases, you can be as enthusiastic as you like in expressing your agreement
It was an interesting exhibition, wasn't it?
(Yes), it was supèrb / absolutely splèndid, etc.
(Yes), dèfinitely.
(Yes), exà ctly.
(Yes), absolùtely.
Tactful disagreement
When you deny or contradict what someone else has stated the effect is often impolite, unless the denial is softened in some way.
English is difficult language to learn.
I am afraid I disagrèe with you: some languages are even mòre difficult I think.
Yès, but it's not so difficult as Rǔssian.
Partial or qualified agreement
In discussion and argument there is often a need to agree with one part of a speaker's view and disagree with another.
Certainly, it's true that drug are menace, but on the other hand we have to take a pragmatic stance.
I realize that every form of taxation has its critics, but surely this is the most unfair and unpopular tax that was ever invented.
Strengthened agreement
We can agree and add a further point to strengthen the agreement
The government will have to take steps to limit the number of cars on the road.
Yes, in fact I believe public opinion it now in favour of banning cars in the central areas of major cities.
Fact, Hypothesis and neutrality
I am glad that the minister has agreed. (Fact - a finite verb clause or an -ing clause or noun phrase)
I wish the minister had agreed. (Hypothesis - past tense in independent clause and by would + infinitive in main clause)
I'm surprised that he made that mistake.
I'm surprised at his making that mistake.
I'm surprised at his mistake.
If we see anything we will let you know.
If we saw anything, we would let you know. (Hypothesis)
If we had seen anything strange would have let you know.
If Monty hadn't be there you could have told the whole story.
Other hypothetical clauses
It's time you were in bed (but you're not in bed)
He behaves as if he owned the place (but he does not own the place)
It's not as if you were all the fond of Alice. (You are not fond of Alice)
Suppose the United Nation had the power to impose a peaceful solution (it does not have the power)
If only she had kept her eyes open. (she didn't keep them open)
In your place, I's would have taken the taxi. (I didn't take the taxi)
Were, were to, should
were-subjunctive
I would play football with you if I were younger.
If I were home secretary, I would impose no restriction whatsoever in such matter.
Were to + infinite
If it were to rain tomorrow, the match would be postponed.
Should + Infinitive
If a serious crisis should arise, the government would have to take immediate action.
Had, subjunctive were, putative should (condition with inversion)
Another type of hypothetical condition clause has no if, but instead begins with an operator placed before subject.
Had they known, they would have more frightened. (If they had known...)
Were a serious crisis to arise, the government would have to act swiftly. (If a serious were...)
Should you change your mind, no one would blame you. (If you should...)
In the negative clause beginning with had, were and should there is not contracted form: instead Hadn't I known, etc. we have to say Had I not known, etc.
Neutrality
In addition to fact, and hypothesis, there is a third type of situation in which the speaker assumes neither truth or falsehood. We call this situation neutrality.
It's best for Sarah to be patient.
I want all of us to agree.
Open condition with 'if' or 'unless' are another case of a construction which is neutral with regard to truth and falsehood:
It's best if Sarah is patient.
Unless we all agree, the whole project will collapse.
Did you know that the minister has agreed? (I'm telling you - the minister has agreed.)
Do you know whether the minister has agreed? (please tell me)
Putative should
Should express a tentative condition in if clause. This is true both for hypothetical and open condition.
If you hear the news, Jane, please let me know.
If you should hear the news, Jane, please let me know.
(We don't know from this whether or not Jane will hear the news.)
Putative should as neutral Idea rather than fact
Fact: The fact that the referendum will be held next month.
We know that the referendum will be held next month.
Idea: The idea that the referendum should be held next month.
Someone is suggesting that referendum should be held next month.
Putative should in that clause
It's pity that you should have to leave.
I'm surprised that there should be any objection.
It's unthinkable that he should resign.
What gets me is that men should be able to threaten ordinary peaceful citizen with bombs and bullets.
Putative in question and explanation:
How should I know?
Why should she have to resign?
Putative should as 'ought to'
he has urged that private firearms should be banned.
The subjunctive
In that clause
Congress voted that the present law continue to operate.
Conditional, contrast and purpose clauses
Whatever be the reason for it, we cannot tolerate disloyalty.
(Whatever the reason for it may be...)
In certain idioms
God save the Queen!
God Bless Nepal.
If you want to throw your life away. So be it.
Bless you for coming.
Heaven forbids.
Degree of likelihood - can, may must, that, probably, perhaps, necessarily, etc.
I may be wrong.
Somebody's car must have been leaking.
It's possible that you're right.
Perhaps there was some mistake.
You may feel better tomorrow.
Possibility - can, may, could, might
Possibility of fact
The railway may be improved.
It is possible that the railways will be improved.
Perhaps / possibly / maybe the railways will be improved.
Possibility of idea
The railways can be improved.
It is possible for the railways to be improved.
Can as sometimes
A good leather bag can last.
Lightning can be dangerous.
She's is very helpful, but she can be short-tempered.
Can for negation
He can't be working at this time. (impossible)
He may not be working. (it is possible that his not working.)
Can for question
Can he be working? (it is possible that he is working?)
Can for past time
In those days, could be sentenced to death for a small crime.
Krasnikov may have made an important discovery.
Hypothetical: could or might
If someone were to come to the wrong conclusion, the whole plan could/might be ruined.
Tentative possibility (could, might)
He could/might have been telling lies.
Ability (can, be able to, be capable of)
He can speak English fluently.
Will you be able to meet me in London tomorrow.
She is capable of keeping a secret when she wants to.
I can't speak a word of German. (negation)
Can you drive a car? (question)
Marcus knew that I could play the piano a little. (past time)
By acting quickly we were able (could) save him from drawing.
I am so hungry, I could eat two dinners. (hypothetical)
Certainty or logical necessity (must, have to)
There must have been some misunderstanding.
You have to be joking.
Many people will certainly / necessarily/ inevitably lose their jobs.
Many people are certain/ sure / bound to lose their jobs.
Does there have to be motive for crime? (question)
Must we have slurping noises?
Strikes don't have to be caused by bad pay. (negation)
Don't worry, someone had to lose the game. (past time)
If I had to choose, I'd prefer this job to any other.
Prediction and predictability (will, must)
That must be my daughter.
They will have arrived by now.
Probability (Should, ought to)
Our guest must be home by now.
Our guest should/ought to be home by now.
He is probably the best chess play in the counter.
They have very likely lost the way home.
There shouldn't be any difficulties. (negation)
Is there likely to be any difficulty in getting tickets? (question)
I'm sure that they can be trusted. (use of sure for must).
Attitude to truth
that clause - I know that his answer will be 'No'.
wh clause - I know what his answer will be.
Adverbials: obviously, without doubt
Without doubts, she is one of the best teachers in the school.
I hope, they can all be trusted. (I am certain, I don't doubt)
Certainty
Polly knew that was she being watched.
I'm certain that party will be success.
Doubt or uncertain
I am not certain / sure / convinced that he deserves promotion.
I doubt if many people will come to the meeting.
We have doubt about the risks everyone is taking.
Belief, Opinion
I believe the lecture was well attended.
She thinks she can dictate to everybody.
It is my belief that global warming will lead to widespread shift of population.
Assumption
We assume / suppose that you have received the package.
All passengers, I presume, have been warned about the delay.
I guess I am kid at heart.
Appearance
It seems / appears that no one noticed his escape.
No one seems / appear to have noticed his escape.
Put may, can, could, or might in the following expression:
1. May I use your phone?
2. He can hold it up.
3. We might hear a cat but couldn't see it.
4. She may arrive soon.
5. He said he could be late.
Use the verbs given below in sentences.
1. May (possibility) - It may rain today.
2. Can (ability) - I can speak English.
3. Must (obligation) - You must abide by rule.
4. Should (probability) - He should have fallen ill.
5. Ought to (probability) - It ought to be raining in Pokhara now.
Mention the attitude to truth of the following
1. We have no doubt of her honesty. <formal> certainty, support.
2. I believe that the lecture was reliable. <belief> certainty, support.
3. Law presumes that everyone knows the law. <assumption> certainty, support.
4. I am not sure of his arrival. <informal> doubt, uncertainty.
Write short affirmations of the following
1. The book is interesting. Yes, it is.
2. I assume Mohan will be late. Yes, he will.
3. Your father looks well. Yes, he is.
4. Can you speak English? Yes, I can.
5. You worry too much. Yes, I do.
Translate the following into British English
Pass me the cookies. Pass me over the biscuit please.
We have run our gas. We have run our petrol.
He left the faucet on. He has left the tap on.
We are leaving in the fall. We are leaving in autumn.
We hate waiting in line. We hate waiting in queue.
Which degree of likelihood (certainty, possibility, probability, impossibility)
i. The railway may be improved.
ii. There must have been some misunderstanding.
iii. The concert is likely to finish late.
iv. He can’t be working at this time.
Indicate whether the following statements express fact, hypothesis or neutrality. (Board Exam 2075)
i. I’m glad that John has agreed.
ii. I wish that John had agreed.
iii. It’s best for Sarah to be patient.
iv. If it were to rain tomorrow, the match would be postponed.
Which degree of likelihood (certainty, possibility, probability, impossibility) do the following sentences express? (Board Exam 2077)
i. He can’t be at home.
ii. He can be at home.
iii. He should be at home.
iv. He has to be at home.
Decide whether the following sentences state 'fact' or 'hypothesis' or 'neutrality' (Board Exam 2022)
i. I'm glad that the Campus Chief has agreed.
ii. I wish the minister had agreed.
iii. It's best if Rita is patient.
iv. Unless we all agree, the whole project will collapse.
Indicate whether the following statements express 'fact', 'hypothesis' or 'neutrality' (Board Exam 2076)
i. I'm glad that John has agreed.
ii. I wish that John had agreed.
iii. It's best for Sarah to be patient.
iv. If it were to rain tomorrow, the match would be postponed.
